Abstract:
Coronal mass ejections (CMEs), as they can inject a large amounts of mass and magnetic flux into
the interplanetary space, are the primary source of space weather phenomena on the Earth. The present review
first briefly introduces the solar surface signatures of the origins of CMEs and then focuses on the attempts to
understand the kinematic evolution of CMEs from the Sun to the Earth. CMEs have been observed in the solar
corona in white-light from a series of space missions over the last five decades. In particular, LASCO/SOHO
has provided almost continuous coverage of CMEs for more than two solar cycles until today. However, the
observations from LASCO suffered from projection effects and limited field-of-view (within 30 R from the
Sun). In 2006, the launch of the twin STEREO spacecraft has made possible multiple viewpoints imaging
observations, which enabled us to assess the projection effects on CMEs. Moreover, heliospheric imagers (HIs)
onboard STEREO continuously observed the large and unexplored distance gap between the Sun and the Earth.
Finally, the Earth-directed CMEs that earlier have been routinely identified only near the Earth at 1 AU in in
situ observations from ACE and WIND, could also be identified at longitudes away from the Sun–Earth line
using the in situ instruments onboard STEREO. We describe the key signatures for the identification of CMEs
using in situ observations. Our review presents the frequently used methods for estimation of the kinematics
of CMEs and their arrival time at 1 AU using primarily SOHO and STEREO observations. We emphasize the
need of deriving the three-dimensional (3D) properties of Earth-directed CMEs from the locations away from
the Sun–Earth line. The results improving the CME arrival time prediction at Earth and the open issues holding
back progress are also discussed. Finally, we summarize the importance of heliospheric imaging and discuss
the path forward to achieve improved space weather forecasting.
